Waste Management, Volume 6


Current Developments in European Waste-to-Energy
Ferdinand Kleppmann, Dr. Ella Stengler
In December 2015, one year after withdrawing the first Circular Economy package, the Juncker Commission published a broader and more ambitious proposal with revised targets and harmonized calculation methods for recycling. In parallel, the European Commission is still working on the Energy Union, a strategy that is the core of the institution’s work in which Waste-to-Energy will play a role. Finally, the Commission will publish a communication focused on Waste-to-Energy aiming to explore the opportunities offered by Waste-to-Energy, particularly with regard to synergies between resource and energy efficiencies by the end of 2016.
Review of the Best Available Techniques Reference Document (BREF) for Waste Incineration – What is the Current Status?
Dipl.-Ing. Markus Gleis
The Best Available Techniques Reference Documents (BREF) are a central point of technical environmental protection in Europe. This involves connected to the IED a higher liability of the BREF because they are updated regularly. Even their further implementation and monitoring at the national level were laid down precisely.
New Waste-to-Energy Facility Energy Works Hull, United Kingdom
Adam Shore
Energy Works Hull (the Project) is a milestone project for the UK’s waste and renewable energy sector. It will be one of the largest gasification facilities receiving MSW in the UK, indeed in Europe. It is one of the first advanced conversion technology Projects to receive its renewable electricity subsidies through a Contract for Difference, the mechanism by which the UK Government determined to move from Renewable Obligation Certificates following its Electricity Market Reform process. It also plays a significant part of the urban regeneration of the City of Hull. The level of community engagement and benefit has resulted in the project receiving a GBP19.9M grant from the European Union’s Regional Development Fund.
Growth Potential for Energy-from-Waste Plant Operators in the European Union and Beyond
Dipl.-Phys. Karl-Heinz MĂĽller, Peter Werz
Across Europe, there is growing recognition that energy, raw materials, environmental and security policy can all be components of an interdependent policy strategy, and that waste management also plays a role at the intersection of these policies. The European Commission is currently preparing a Communication which will explore the contribution that energy from waste (EfW) can make to the European Energy Union. The Energy Union is designed to reduce the EU’s reliance on energy from Russia, following the dramatic events in Ukraine. The EU’s strategic energy and security goals create an opportunity to implement the longstanding EU waste Management targets, particularly with regard to landfilling.
Use of a Fabric Filter for the Sorption – What Has to be Considered? – Experiences and Solutions –
Dipl.-Ing. RĂĽdiger Margraf
In almost all flue gas cleaning systems installed at WtE-plants, the fabric filters are central components. A good example for this is the conditioned dry sorption process which is currently preferentially used in Europe. Within the filter not only the particles and the particulate heavy metals are separated from the gas flow, but also all reaction products resulting from the separation of gaseous pollutants such as HF, HCl, SOx, heavy metals and in this respect particularly Hg as well as PCDD/PCDF. In addition to this the fabric filter constitutes an excellent reaction chamber with high additive powder density in the filter cake.
Waste Management in India and Experience with the Implementation of Projects Based on Public Private Partnership Model
Sundeep Kumar
Decades of improper Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Management has resulted in the creation of huge dumpsites in cities. These dumpsites are causing considerable environmental pollution and are full to capacity in most cities. Land for new disposal sites is not easily available due to increasing urbanization and population pressure. In many cases there is considerable protest from surrounding villages for setting up of a new MSW disposal site.
Enhancing of the Energy Efficiency of an Existing Waste Incineration Plant by Retrofitting with a District Heating Network
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Rommel, Thorsten Freudenberger, Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Markus Hertel, Thomas Moritz
The German Cycle Economy Act (Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz KrWG) and discussions on the turn of local energy policies led to intensive examination of options for optimising utilisation of heat produced by the waste incineration plant (MKW) in Weißenhorn. This has been carried out by the waste management firm(Abfallwirtschaftsbetrieb – AWB) of the district of Neu-Ulm over a long period of time. This was also prompted by knowledge that utilisation of already generated energy in the form of combined heat and power generation (CHP) is one of the most efficient ways of achieving climate protection targets. This results from considering which courses of action are available for climate protection.
Fully Automated Sorting Plant for Municipal Solid Waste in Oslo with Recovery of Metals, Plastics, Paper and Refuse Derived Fuel
Dr.-Ing. Benjamin Eule
In order to treat household waste Romerike Avfallsforedling (ROAF) located in Skedsmorkorset north of Oslo, Norway required the installation of a mechanical Treatment facility to process 40,000 tpa. Together with a Norwegian based technical consultancy Mepex and German based technical consultancy EUG the project was tendered and the plant build against a technical specification. In 2013 the project was awarded to Stadler Anlagenbau and since April 2014 the plant is in operation with an hourly throughput of thirty tons. The input waste contains specific green coloured bags containing food waste which is collected together with the residual waste from the households. The process recovers successfully the green food bags before the remaining waste is mechanically pre-treated and screened to isolate a polymer rich fraction which is then fully segregated via NIR technology in to target polymers prior to fully automated product baling. Recoverable Fibre is optically targeted as well as ferrous and non-ferrous metals. All food waste is transported off site for further biological treatment and the remaining residual waste leaves site for thermal recovery. In 2015 the plant has been successfully upgraded to forty tons per hour and remains fully automated including material baling.
International Experience of Risks Sharing between Public and Private Entities in Energy-from-Waste Plants Construction
Christophe Cord´Homme
Imagine that you are the mayor of a city named Metropolis and are in Charge of School logistics. Before doing so, you might have to ask yourself a few essential questions. What kind of transportation will you provide? Who will it benefit: students, staff or both? Where will the service be provided? When will it be provided: in the evening, morning? And finally, how much will it cost? All these essential questions need to be answered before starting to implement this project and to buy your buses. By doing so, planning, financing, building and operating the chosen mean of Transportation will become an easier task. After that, your political decisions will direct the choice of implication of private sector on the different aspects of your project.
Refuse Derived Fuel – A European Market Heading for Overcapacity
Mike Brown
During the last five years, the residual waste market has been transformed from one whose geography was largely defined by a country’s borders to one that has become truly European in nature. Increasing, and now significant, tonnages of refuse derived fuel (RDF) and solid recovered fuel (SRF) are moving across national boundaries. In the UK, for example, the export of RDF and SRF has grown from 250,000 tonnes per annum (tpa) in 2011 to 3.4 million tpa in 2015.
Regenerative Thermal Oxidation in the Cement Industry – Technology and Operation –
Thomas Binninger, Dr. Kai Schulze
The cement industry plays a pivotal role in meeting society’s needs for housing and infrastructure. Cement is one of the most important and widely used commodities in the world and is therefore a key ingredient of economic development. Current world production of cement is well above 4,500 million tons per year and growing.
Development of Waste Management in the Arab Region
Dr.-Ing. Abdallah Nassour, Prof. Dr. Michael Nelles, Ayman Elnaas, Engineer Safwat Hemidat
The Department of Waste Management and Material Flow of the University of Rostock has been active in Arab countries for over 20 years, and has initiated, carried out and scientifically supervised numerous projects. Waste management and material flow is an important theme in the field of German development cooperation in the MENA regions and has gained in significance in recent years.
Plastics Recycling and Energy Recovery Activities in Poland – Current Status and Development Prospects –
Dr.-Ing. Kazimierz Borkowski
The waste disposal system in Poland is one of the least advanced in Europe. Despite great efforts over the last 20 years municipal waste landfilling has only reduced from 95 percent in 1991 to 73 percent in 2010. This still means that millions of tonnes of post-consumer waste continue to be landfilled.
The Added Value of the Balance Method for Waste-to-Energy Operators and National Authorities
Ass. Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr. techn. Johann Fellner, Professor Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Helmut Rechberger, Therese Schwarzböck
Different directives of the European Union may require operators of Waste to Energy WTE plants to monitor the composition of their waste feed with respect to the Content of biomass and fossil organic matter. The mass fractions of both materials are not only of relevance for the amount of fossil and thus climate relevant CO2 emissions of the plant, but also for the ratio of renewable energy generated, as biomass in wastes is considered as renewable energy source.
The Market for Mechanical Biological Waste Treatment Plants in Europe
Dipl.-Geogr. Mark Döing
Both the number and capacities of mechanical biological treatment plants (MBT plants) have increased significantly in the past years. In late 2015, about 490 MBT plants were active in Europe, reaching a disposal capacity of circa 47 million annual tons. However, despite its steady growth, the MBT market showed volatility. The market development peaked in 2005/2006, with the commissioning of about 80 plants with a capacity of circa 9 million annual tons. In 2015, about 13 new facilities with a capacity of around 2.2 million annual tons went online. The MBT market has also shifted geographically, because the European countries have started implementing the EU Landfill Directive in different years. After MBT plants had mainly been constructed in Southern Europe, Germany and Austria before 2006, investments shifted towards the UK and more recently, towards Eastern Europe. In the coming years, an ambivalent development is expected. Whereas further MBT plants will be constructed in countries still sending large shares of their MSW to landfills, MBT technology will experience increasing pressure in the countries with low landfilling shares.
Infrasound Solution for Fouled SCR and the Economizer in World’s Largest Waste-to-Energy Boiler
Martin Ellebro, Henrik Blom
Infrafone, with headquarters in Stockholm, Sweden, is using infrasound as a soot cleaning method and has plenty of experiences from various fuels and applications. The technical development has resulted in a product with much higher acoustic power than any other similar products on the market and acoustic modelling software that is unique. Infrasound cleaning increases the efficiency, the availability and the lifetime of industrial and marine boilers. In this text we start by describing the properties of infrasound and the product, while finishing by looking deeper into a couple of recent results obtained on waste to energy boilers.
Application of Modified NiCrMo Alloy Systems for Boiler Tube Surface Protection in Waste-to-Energy Environments
Iain Hall, Kwang Han, Dr. Tri Shrestha
Internationally, Waste to Energy and Incineration markets continue to grow in capacity as fossil fueled facilities decline and nuclear generation is curtailed. With this comes a greater need to burn more corrosive materials combust at higher temperatures and extract more energy. The reliability burden that this places on operators of plants is re-opening opportunities for thermal spray solutions as a cost effective solution for boiler tube protection. Where maintenance costs, opportunity costs and access restrictions may preclude alternative in-situ technologies, thermal spray technology may fill a gap in providing new reliable and flexible process and materials technologies for both mid- and long-term protection of water wall and superheater tubes. While historically thermal spray coating solutions have had a spotty record in waste to energy environments, advances in both process and materials technology specifically for WTE environments is such that coating performance now approaches the performance of high alloy wrought materials. This is verified through accurate laboratory modeling and scale tests and trials conducted by OEM’s and plants.
Development of Waste-to-Energy Projects
Trimurti Irzan, Martina de Giovanni, Lukas Schwank
The first objective of waste management must always be to protect society and the health of individuals from harmful substances contained in the waste. Along the various methods around the globe with which waste has been treated the waste pyramid or waste management hierarchy has become widely accepted as the governing principle for waste management in modern societies. These principles have also been integrated in the European waste framework directive 2008/98/EC. At the bottom of the pyramid lays disposal of waste, meaning it is the least favourable option to treat a primary waste. However this does not mean implementing the waste pyramid prohibits disposal. It merely means that before disposal all other meaningful options are exhausted, and the quantity has been minimized.
Overview of the Waste Management Situation and Planning in Greece
Dr. Efstratios Kalogirou, Antonios Sakalis
Waste management has been recognized as one of the most pressing problems in Greece suffering of a low level of organization and relying predominantly on semi-controlled landfills until the end of the previous century [9]. Nevertheless improvements have been made during the last twenty years making the solid waste management in Greece a well-structured, organized and environmentally responsible activity with specific goals, mostly in the urban areas. However, there is a big need of changing the waste Management model. The development of efficient use of resources is the mean of realizing this vision. The transformation of the economy towards a resource-efficient direction will lead to increased competitiveness and new sources of growth and jobs through cost reduction through improved efficiency, commercialization of innovations and better management of resources throughout the duration of cycle life.
Significance of and Challenges for Flue Gas Treatment Systems in Waste Incineration
Professor Dr.-Ing. Rudi H. Karpf, Andreas Wiedl
Flue gas cleaning downstream of waste incineration plants had its origins in the increased construction and deployment of such plants to counter rising air pollution in the nineteen-sixties. Back then, the ever-growing burden on the environment caused lawmakers to start enacting emission limits for air pollution control. An unceasing series of environmental scandals and increasingly better analytical methods and measuring instrumentation led to a constant reduction of the emission limits and, consequently, to ongoing adjustment and further development of the necessary process stages in flue gas cleaning. As a result, today minimum emissions can be reached even under the challenging condition of deployment of a very inhomogeneous fuel (waste) and, hence, waste incineration today is no longer a key contributor to air pollution. Today, the need for flue gas cleaning is not called into doubt anymore and has long become a matter of course in the industry and in society at large. Apart from ensuring efficient elimination of noxious gases, the focus of today’s further developments is on issues such as energy efficiency, minimization of input materials and recovery and recycling of by-products from flue gas cleaning as valuable raw materials. These issues are also deemed to be key challenges, especially when it comes to selecting sites for new plants in such a manner that potential synergies can be exploited. Such aspects will also have to be considered in the plans for the predicted mega-cities of the future.
Innovative Application Methods of Slags from High-Temperature-Gasifying-and-Direct-Melting System
Masato Katafuchi, Prof. Stanislaw Stryczek, Radoslaw MrĂłz, Wojciech Wons
JFE High-Temperature Gasifying and Direct Melting Furnace System (hereinafter Gasifying and Melting System) was developed to treat any kind of wastes and to contribute to energy and material recovery. Gasifying and Melting System was developed by integrating company’s original technologies for the iron-making blast furnace and fluidized bed for incineration plants, which the company cultivated over many years. The company’s advanced technologies in these two different fields were combined and integrated into the unique Gasifying and Melting System. This system is a proven technology that realizes high performance
New Developments for an Efficient SNCR Monitoring and Regulation System by Evaluating the NOx Mass Flow Profile
Dipl.-Ing. Bernd von der Heide
When the SNCR process was introduced first in the eighties of the last century the focus was directed towards applying this low cost technology mainly in combustion plants where only relatively low NOx reduction rates were required. In these types of boilers, like waste-to-energy plants (WtE), the required NOx limits < 200 mg/Nm3 could be maintained easily. Today, NOx limits of 100 mg/Nm3 and lower can be achieved and guaranteed at all operating conditions for these applications. Therefore, the SNCR process represents the Best Available Technology (BAT) today. As a result, more and more owners of waste-to-energy plants take advantage of the low costs at comparable performance and replace their existing SCR system with SNCR.
Wrong Tracks in Waste Management
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Vollmeier, Lukas Schwank, Dipl. Chem. Ing. Luciano Pelloni
Waste Management is ubiquitous in our everyday life. Economic prosperity and the abundance of materialistic goods imply the generation of waste. In parallel the public awareness for environmentally sound solutions in the field of waste management is raising. This context imposes challenging conditions for political leaders. Often politicians are confronted to take decisions about concepts or investments in waste management without independent expertise. They are approached by vendors of waste treatment technologies or concepts, claiming high environmental and energetic performance, combined with profitable cost – benefit rates.
Disposal of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers – Problems During Recycling and Impacts on Waste Incineration
Marco Limburg, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter Quicker
Carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRPs) are becoming increasingly more ubiquitous in our daily lives. CFRPs are composite materials, consisting of carbon fibers with high mechanical capabilities and a formative polymer matrix. The production process of carbon fibers is complex and energy intensive, thus making CFRPs more expensive than comparable metal materials. The advantage of CFRPs lies in their weight; metal materials of the same properties weight up to five times as much. This makes CFRPs especially valuable in areas, where weight and cost directly correlate, but high mechanical properties are still essential.
Complex Approach towards the Assessment of Waste-to-Energy Plants’ Future Potential
Dr. Martin Pavlas, Ondrej Putna, Jiri Kropác, Professor Dr.-Ing. habil. Dr. h. c. Petr Stehlik
There is a fierce debate ongoing about future recycling targets for municipal solid waste (MSW) at the European level. The old linear concept of waste management is being changed into a circular economy. Since the separation yield and post-recycling MSW (later on residual solid waste, RSW) production have an opposite relationship, assuming the constant production of particular components (paper, plastics etc.), lower RSW rates are also expected. This is having a negative effect on Waste-to-energy (WtE); especially in terms of its future optimum capacity in particular countries.
Possibilities of Development of Municipal Waste Recycling and Incineration in Poland
Dr. Beata B. Klopotek
One of the basic rules in the field of waste management is the use of processes which are located as high as possible in the waste hierarchy, while taking into consideration the life cycle thinking. This also applies to municipal waste management. Waste prevention is at the top of the hierarchy. This is followed by: preparation for reuse, recycling and other recovery processes, including thermal treatment (incineration) of waste with energy recovery. The disposal of waste, which includes, among others, landfilling, is at the bottom of the hierarchy. Thus, the objective is to move up the hierarchy, which means moving away from waste disposal towards waste recovery.
How to Optimize Recycling Rates Using Waste Incineration
Till Lemme, Wilfried Frehmann
The improvement of recycling and reuse of waste is becoming more and more important and it is generally preferred compared to waste incineration. In fact, the incineration of waste is often considered the last alternative when recycling of a certain waste fraction is technically not possible or there is simply no market for the corresponding fraction of the waste. But instead of considering waste incineration as being contradictory to recycling, it may also be considered as an alternative way to achieve higher recycling rates. The main goal of waste to energy is the use of the chemical energy contained in the carbon and drogen, and transfer this into thermal energy. But all other elements contained in the waste will of course also be found in the various residue streams leaving the plant. For these residue streams there are possibilities for further treatment, enabling Separation of certain elements, improvement of the quality of a residue stream to allow re-use on the market or even potential for the preparation of a new product.
Feasability Study of Capturing CO2 from the Klemetsrud CHP Waste-to-Energy Plant in Oslo
Johnny Stuen
The municipality of Oslo by Energigjennvinningsetaten (EGE) was in December 2015 awarded funding from Gassnova – a state owned company that coordinates the Norwegian CCS-work – to conduct a feasibility study. The purpose of the feasibility study was to demonstrate at least one workable solution for carbon capture from energy recovery for waste, with technical descriptions, cost estimates, project plan and plan and budget for the next phase.
Initial Operating Experience with the New Polish Waste-to-Energy Plants
Prof. Ph. D., Eur. Ing. (Dr.-Ing. habil.) Tadeusz Pajak, Michał Jurczyk
Waste-to-Energy plants are an integral part of modern municipal Waste Management Systems. Today recycling and energy recovery from waste are the only methods of dealing with municipal waste. This is demonstrated by Waste Management Systems in countries such as Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark and Austria, where the municipal waste management is limited solely to recycling and energy recovery from waste. The currently discussed concept of the latest circular economy package can hardly change anything in this matter. Poland, as one of the leaders among the new EU member states (since 2004), has still a lot to do within the scope of recycling and waste-to-energy.
Overview of the Pyrolysis and Gasification Processes for Thermal Disposal of Waste
Dr. JĂĽrgen Vehlow
Thermal treatment of waste started in the 1870s in England with the first waste incineration plants and this technology was in short time adopted by many industrialised countries. Starting in the late 1970s waste incineration was blamed for emission of toxic compounds, in particular of dioxins, and public pressure initiated the decree of more and more stringent air emission standards in all countries which, again, induced significant improvement of the environmental performance of waste incineration.
Brave New World – Selected Jurisdictional Pitfalls when Acting on International Waste-to-Energy Projects
Dr. Alexander Stefan Rieger, Dr. Tobias Faber
Over the last few years, Waste-to-Energy (WtE) projects became increasingly international. In times of low interest rates, solid infrastructure projects with their fix return rates are more and more attractive to project developers, international investors as well as EPC and O&M contractors. They attract financial and strategic investors which would otherwise not turn towards these rather long-term investments. Therefore, a continuously increasing number of international players from different jurisdictions is entering the global playing field.
Measures to Implement an Advanced Waste Management System in the Czech Republic
JaromĂ­r Manhart
The Czech Republic is now preparing the new complete revision of waste law. The transformation of the waste management into the circular economy started through the legislative process in June 2016. Waste management plan of the Czech Republic for 2015 to 2024 clearly specifies waste strategy and priorities for the country. Thus, in the Act on waste the ban on landfilling of recyclable and recoverable waste in 2024, obligatory separate collection of main municipal waste streams including biowaste since 2015 and currently proposed increase of waste landfilling tax with strict recycling targets already in 2018 are only the first milestones leading to smarter waste future in the Czech Republic.
Manufacturing of Solid Recovered Fuels (SRF) for Energy Recovery Processes
Dipl.-Ing. Dr. mont. Renato Sarc, Em.o.Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Karl E. Lorber, Univ.-Prof. DI Dr. mont. Roland Pomberger
This contribution describes manufacturing processes and quality of three types of Solid Recovered Fuels – i.e. SRF low quality, SRF medium quality and SRF premium quality – that are used in energy recovery plants. In total, two case studies are reported. First case study is about the external processing and confectioning of non-hazardous household, industrial and commercial mixed wastes as well as the internal treatment and homogenisation of various waste fractions at the incineration plant for production of SRF low quality that is utilized in a Waste to Energy (WtE) stationary Fluidized Bed Incinerator. In the second case study, production of SRF medium quality and SRF premium quality that are used for substitution of primary fuels like coal and petrol coke in the cement kiln is described. Finally, data on SRF quality of all three investigated waste types will be summarized and discussed.
CO2 Capture and Re-Use at a Waste Incinerator
Dr. Patrick Huttenhuis, Andy Roeloffzen, Professor Dr. Ir. Geert Versteeg
Recently a new innovative process developed by Procede Gas Treating B.V. has been commissioned at line 3 of the Twence plant, a Waste-To-Energy (WTE) plant located in the eastern part of the Netherlands. In this process the CO2, that usually is emitted to atmosphere, is in this new application, scrubbed from the flue gas and the obtained pure CO2 stream is used to produce a sodium bicarbonate slurry (SBC). Instead of the conventional SBC flue gas scrubbing process, where dry SBC particles are used, this SBC slurry will be injected to remove the acid components from the flue gas, before the gas is emitted to atmosphere. Due to the implementation of this process the carbon footprint of the Twence installation is reduced. The new SBC plant produces 8,000 tons of sodium bicarbonate annually and to produce this amount of SBC 2,000 ton per year CO2 is captured from the flue gas. The CO2 originates for about 50 percent from biomass.
Future Development of Waste Management in China According to the 13th Five-Year Plan
Yanglong Li, Zhai Zhengyu, Dr. Wenchao Teng, Professor Tianhua Yang, Prof. Dr. Rundong Li
Municipal solid waste (MSW) known as trash or garbage consists of food waste, paper, cardboard, plastics, PET, glass, textiles, metals, wood and leather, nappies, slug, ash, etc. are arising from human and animal activities. The rapid development and urbanization of China have resulted in an increasing volume of MSW. So the problem of MSW management has become a major social problem, but one the other hand, because of their intrinsic properties, MSW are often reusable and may be considered a resource for energy recovery. The delivering quantity of household waste averages 179 million tons in China, and the amount of untreated MSW over the years has reached 7 billion tons.
Resource Recovery from Waste Using the Input Flexibility of Waste Gasification Technology
Nobuhiro Tanigaki, Ryo Makishi, Toshimi Nagata
Nowadays, gasification of waste or biomass is becoming the great interest all over the world. Especially, gasification of municipal solid waste (MSW) has been well-researched in Japan. The development of MSW gasification technology was started in the 1970s in Japan because of oil crisis. Several technologies have been researched and developed. The Direct Melting System (DMS), which is the gasification and melting technology developed by Nippon Steel & Sumikin Engineering Co., Ltd., is one of the developed waste gasification technologies in this era. This technology was introduced for commercial use in Kamaishi City, Japan in 1979. As well as this waste technology, other gasification technologies have been developed for commercial use and installed.
Modelling of Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) Properties Based on Material Composition – Chloride Quality
Innes Deans, Ioannis Dimas, Costas Velis
Producing solid recovered fuels (SRF) is a well-established route for recovering energy resources from municipal solid waste (household and/or commercial). Chloride content critically impacts the quality of SRF. It directly influences operation of thermal processes, having deleterious effects through the high temperature corrosion of the boilers and through demands placed on the flue gas treatment (FGT) system, which could impact emissions control. Whereas design and specification of process plant can mitigate the technical issues associated with the presence of chloride experienced during thermal treatment, processing such fuels is associated with increased capital, operating and maintenance costs. This, at best, restricts the uptake/use of SRF or increases the cost of its treatment towards achieving a reduced chloride content.
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